Stereotypes and Prejudice Essay Example for Free

Stereotypes and Prejudice Essay The authors examine overt and subtle forms of stereotyping and prejudice. Two theories that explain overt prejudice are reviewed: realistic conflict theory and social identity theory. Although overt prejudice seems to have declined, subtle stereotyping is still pervasive. The authors review one theory, aversive racism theory, that explains this phenomenon. They also discuss two perspectives, attributional ambiguity and stereotype threat, which provide accounts of the impact of subtle racism. Both overt and subtle prejudice present challenges for the classroom. The authors describe one intervention called the jigsaw classroom that encourages work toward common goals and helps reduce the expression and impact of overt discrimination. A second intervention program, wise schooling, is presented, which aims to reduce the impact of subtle stereotypes by reducing stereotype threat. Why do prejudice and discrimination exist? Has overt racism been replaced by more subtle forms of prejudice? How does stereotyping affect its targets? In this article we describe two theories, realistic conflict theory and social identity theory, which provide an answer to the first question. We address the second question by noting that although overt discrimination has decreased, subtle forms of prejudice are still quite common and we describe one theory, aversive racism, that provides a compelling account of this change in the expression of prejudice. Finally, we answer the third question by describing two phenomena, attributional ambiguity and stereotype threat, that result from the pervasive nature of subtle stereotyping. This article is a selective overview of what social psychology has to say about these crucial issues. In addition, we review two effective intervention programs that offer promise in ameliorating the effects of stereotyping and prejudice in the classroom. In its earliest conceptions, prejudice was treated as a manifestation of pathology (Ashmore Del B oca,1981 ). For example, the frustration-aggression hypothesis (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, Sears, 1939, pp. 27-54) considered prejudice to be a result of scapegoating, and authoritarian personality theory (Brown, 1965, pp. 477-546) posited that a severe childhood upbringing could result in a rigid, authoritarian adult who is prejudiced against anyone who is different from the self. But more contemporary accounts of stereotyping and prejudice have emphasized that prejudice may be a more common and normal result of group interaction. In developing realistic group conflict theory Sherif and Sherif ( 1969, pp. 222-266) dismiss the notion that prejudice is pathological and suggest instead that it may frequently arise out of ordinary conflicts of interest between groups. In their studies of a boys’ summer camp, they discovered that ordinary group competition for valued resources led to highly negative and stereotypical views of opposing groups and their individual members. Perhaps the more interesting aspect of these studies, however, was the manner in which conflict and hostility were ameliorated. The Sherifs found that mere contact among opposing groups only intensified the hostility (cf. Stephan, 1987). Events that required cooperative action, however, did function to reduce intergroup conflict. After several such events, all involving superordinate goals (i.e., goals shared by members of all groups), cross-group friendships began to develop and intergroup hostility began to diminish. Working cooperatively toward shared goals transformed the skills of individual group members into valued resources. So, although conflicts of interest resulted in prejudice and intense disliking between groups, action toward superordinate goals helped foster positive opinions and mutual liking. According to another influential line of work, social identity theory (Brewer, 1979; Tajfel Turner, 1986), we categorize people into social groups and locate ourselves within a category. We then evaluate the value or worth of our social identities primarily by comparing our group with other groups. The basic premise of social identity theory is that we are motivated to maintain a positively valued social identity and we may do so by creating or taking advantage of favorable comparisons with other groups. The need to maintain a positive distinction between our own group and others can lead to behavior and attitudes that are biased in favor of our own group and against other groups. According to this perspective, prejudice, intergroup conflict, and stereotyping may arise simply from the struggle to attain or maintain a positive social identity (e.g., Crocker, Thompson, McGraw, Ingerman, 1987). DOES RACISM STILL EXIST? Many historical perspectives on stereotyping, including realistic group conflict theory and social identity theory, attempt to explain the prevalence of overt prejudice and discrimination. However, this kind of directly expressed racism, particularly prejudice directed toward African Americans, is becoming less common. For example, a variety of surveys that directly measure negative178 stereotypes about African Americans, attitudes toward school and residential integration, and general beliefs concerning equal opportunity all indicate that there has been a dramatic shift toward more egalitarian and less racist views over the last 50 years (see Dovidio Gaertner, 1991, for a review). Dovidio and Gaertner (1991) note, however, that across the variety of samples, there are still indications of overt racism in fully 20% of Whites. But what about the 80% who consistently report more positive attitudes toward African Americans? Despite the evidence that a majority of Whites now feel generally more supportive and accepting of African Americans, there is also considerable evidence that these positive feelings may be held with some ambivalence and may mask a more subtle form of racism. For example, survey research reported in Dovidio and Gaertner ( 1991 ) indicates that although Whites seem to endorse the general idea of egalitarianism, they are opposed to specific ways in which it might be implemented, including giving preference to qualified African American job applicants and government intervention to ensure school integration. Although Whites have positive attitudes toward the abstract ideas, they also remain less than enthusiastic about personally having African American neighbors and about interracial marriage. In addition to the survey research mentioned above, laboratory research also provides a great deal of compelling evidence demonstrating the subtle but continuing influence stereotypes have on information processing (Hamilton Sherman, 1994). Stereotypes make cognitive processing about our complex social worlds easier and more efficient. However, the negative consequences of this increased efficiency are reflected in the numerous studies indicating that stereotypes can significantly bias our judgments about other people (e.g., Rosenthal Jacobson, 1968; Sagar Schofield, 1980). For example, Rosenthal and Jacobson’s (1968) work on teacher expectancies suggests that a priori expectations about a student’s academic ability can easily lead a teacher to treat the student differentially and in accord with those expectancies (perhaps causing the student to conform to the expectancies, regardless of his or her natural ability).

How Flexible is the Brains Circuitry? :: Biology Essays Research Papers

How Flexible is the Brain's Circuitry? The brain is a complicated organ, containing an estimated 100 billion neurons and around 1,000 to 10,000 synapses for each of those neurons (1). This organ has the great responsibility of not only controlling and regulating the functions of the body but also sensing and perceiving the world around it. In humans, it is what we believe makes us the highly adaptive and intelligent organisms that we are, as well as give us our individuality. But with so many parts and connections to it, what happens when the brain's delicate circuitry is disrupted? We've all heard of brain damage, and its horrible results, whether is a news report on TV or science books. It seems that with trauma, disruption of blood supply, and disease; neurons and their connections could be destroyed and the organism's behavior exceedingly affected. Yet I've read about how people have overcome tremendous damage to their brains and gone on to function with very minimal handicaps. In elementary biology, we are all taught that cells in our body go through systems that replaces old, worn out cells with new cells. Most cell types go through programmed cell death, or PCD, but there was always an exception in the neuron; very early in mammalian development, neurons stop growing (4). PCD would be disastrous, as the depleted neurons would never be replaced. Since we need all our neurons and their connections to function, how do individuals with damage to both these neurons and connections survive, much less functioning within any definition of normality? After all, remove a few chips from a computer's motherboard and you won't have functioning computer. Yet there are children living their lives with only half their brains intact One of the most memorable case studies I read about in high school psychology was the procedure of removing large portions, sometime half the brain, to treat young children with epileptic seizures. This procedure, called hemi-spherectomy, was developed in the 1920's but rarely performed due to complications (8). With the advances in medicine today, it has become a more common practice in treatment severe epilepsy. At first, though the procedure was expected to stop the seizures, doctors did not expect these children to ever function normally. After all, with so much of the brain missing, it is hard to expect much of the mental functions of these children. Surprisingly, these children often retained much of their personality, memories and sense humor (8), awing their doctors with the flexibility of the brains to adjust after such invasive surgery.

Karachi Shares Innumerable Secrets English Literature Essay

Contrariwise to an foreigner of Karachi, the metropolis remains elusive, even if it welcomes them. But for those Karachiites who has moved someplace else, even many old ages after their visit, the lone thing I can state with certainty is that Karachi stays on you, the metropolis keeps oozing in from underneath tightly shut doors in memory. â€Å" It ‘s a dead metropolis † If Karachiites who go to other fellow metropoliss do n't express these cliched discourses about the topographic point, so they likely are non Karachiites to the bosom. The above is merely what I said when I had to see a adjacent metropolis with my household, though it was for merely a twosome of hebdomads. â€Å" It ‘s non deserving life in † would be the treatment my brother and I would hold clip and once more. The fact that the roads were about empty after 11pm, the stores would shut early and that people were a small excessively insouciant was intolerable for us. Even the most beautiful love narrative of my life began, many old ages ago in the early 70aˆ?s, here in this metropolis of visible radiations. It was a meeting of two disparate psyches, their waies everlastingly altered by a opportunity brush. My Ma and Dad met in Karachi a twenty-four hours before my male parent was to return to his household in other metropolis. Small did he cognize that a adult female, who introduced herself as proprietor of the biggest film in Karachi, would go forth such an impact. What happened in those minutes will everlastingly stay a romantic enigma, as it should. When I was still really small my parents used to take me to the sea shore of the metropolis ; I do n't retrieve much about it, I was likely excessively immature, but one thing I do retrieve is their love for the sea conveying into me. I remember how puzzling and absorbing each and every moving ridge seemed to me back so and how strongly it affected my sense of esthetics. And now, after rather many old ages, one twenty-four hours I stopped at a seaboard eating house with friends. Lights shone all across the H2O that seaports those eating houses. We spent rather some clip seeking to capture it in exposure, but there is something to such scenes that can non be caged inside pels. That portion of the Arabian Sea was so pass oning at that minute. All I could believe at that really minute was how anyone could bear populating right following to something so powerful, so beautiful. How were people non driven into craze by the sea as it crashed infinitely on the shore? Or possibly they were. It was so when I began to remember how my gramps used to state me about our favourite metropolis. He often used to advert that in the initial yearss after divider, Karachi was a beacon of hope and chance for migrators who came from far and broad. He frequently expressed that Karachi was one time a metropolis of dreams where everybody, irrespective of race, colour or credo had the chance of prosperity and success and an upward societal mobility through doggedness and difficult work. Whoever you were and wherever you came from in chase of your dreams, you were received thirstily by this magnificent and truly metropolitan metropolis. His earliest flashes of memory were of a beautiful metropolis by flaxen beaches, A a metropolis which ne'er went to kip and seemed to throb round the clock, unlike any other urban centre in the state. Its sea breeze-cooled-evenings, scented by raat qi ranee, were the material of poesy. Its famed dark life was non merely for the rich but was accessible to the in-between category excessively, my Grandfather articulated. Yes, any bustling city in the Third World wo n't be without its portion of the destitute. But Karachi someway managed to turn up the hapless in its embracing. Rarely did anyone slumber hungry. Karachi was the state ‘s amusement capital ; I could experience my gramps ‘s enriched tone while he revealed this. The metropolis had over five 100 film ; over three twelve dark nines, legion bars, a good maintained race class and what are still possibly some of the finest natural beaches in the part. Other favourite musca volitanss were the Kemari fishing seaport. It was in the seventiess that the metropolis ‘s celebrated crabbing scene was first urbanised in Kemari. By the late sixtiess touristry as an industry in Karachi was booming, so much so that in 1972 the authorities created the state ‘s first dedicated touristry ministry and section, with their chief offices situated in Karachi. He used to note those chai khanas and restaurants from good old yearss. Cafes appeared ordinary yet ask foring from outside but this was non the lone instance one time you enter. You could instantly connect with those topographic points. Tiny chairs, white topped tabular arraies, polite servers, little teapots and a nostalgic show of cutter. Particular reference among all those coffeehouse was the 1 at Lasbella. He specified that this peculiar cafe was the hub of all the authors and poets of that clip. Coffee house at M.A. Jinnah route and P.I.D.C ‘s paan was my gramps and his friend ‘s favourite and a must travel on every dark out. Social Life was reasonably fast, and I believe it still is. In Karachi there is a blend of civilization from all the states of PakistanA which makes it particular. Peoples in Karachi love to observe events, puting aside all the differences in dramatis personae and colour. Karachi was a great topographic point to convey up one ‘s kids, my Grandfather expounded. Peoples loved the old ropeway that trundled along from Empress Market to Kemari from where they would so skip into a sailing boat that took them to the attractive picnic musca volitanss of Sandspit and Hawksbay. There were n't many autos but one still caught an infrequent glance of them howling down Victoria Road. Chevrolet was the male monarch during the 1950ss and 1960ss, right up to the early 1970ss, the Chevy Belairs and so the Impalas were the most popular of all autos. Those were the yearss when no citizen of this province of all time thought of migrating to Britain or United States. Men, adult females and kids could walk the streets of the metropolis boulder clay tardily at dark and no 1 would trouble oneself them, my gramps told me. In fact, what he missed most about the Karachi of the late '50s and early '60s was the spirit of tolerance, secularism and open-mindedness that existed. There was besides decency and graciousness. I, myself have frequently felt that large metropoliss, with their tall edifices and short piques, are all likewise at some degree. However, this metropolis will retain one quality, a certain facet of character, that will be entirely its ain. I recognize this in the about hallucinating passion the people of Karachi seem to hold for their metropolis, in the manner their love seems to turn in times of bad luck. Karachi is known informally as the metropolis of visible radiations. But fast frontward to several decennaries subsequently, now Karachi has aged enormously. It is no longer considered a starry-eyed kid nurtured by finding. There are Sindhi, Balochi, Punjabi and Pakhtoon. All political parties own them all, talk about them and they are still on their docket. But whenever their militants are killed, they hijack their place metropolis, shuting all roads. They leave us Karachiites stranded by prehending the gasoline pumps, and shut down markets turning a deaf ear to our cries of wretchedness. And yet, Karachiites keep walking, with bruised articulatio genuss and scraped mortise joints, loving their metropolis more and more every twenty-four hours. I do cognize, nevertheless, the little enviousness of person ( read: me ) who has non owned a metropolis in such an unconditioned manner. It ‘s a common head set of people that we invariably think what ‘s incorrect with our country/city but we ne'er try and appreciate what we are blessed with. Why this metropolis is so unloved by some when it embraces wholly? If merely for a alteration we healed Karachi with the energy with which we plunder it. As Bertrand Russell says: ‘The route, I fear, is long. But that is no ground for losing sight of the ultimate hope. ‘ Karachi, as I see it, is the forefront metropolis, economic hub and the individuality of Pakistan. All good old movables of the metropolis, about which my gramps had told me, I believe their kernel is still the same. And I am certain that I have every bit much good memories of the Karachi metropolis, as my Grandfather had. Hopefully when I would convey the following coevals about my darling metropolis, with a small spot of finding they are traveling to be proud on being a Karachiitie, as much proud as I am.By: Dr. Sana Akhtar

Recurring Issues Of The Roman Catholic Church - 1228 Words

RECURRING ISSUE IN THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, ORTHODOXY AND PROTESTANTISM The most important recurring issues in the study of the history of Christianity during our time period is sexual abuse amongst the Catholic Clergy and abortion, the killing of a living entity, as it is a sin against God according to biblical doctrine. Many believe that sexual abuse happening in the Catholic Church, is directly related to celibacy. The Churches restriction on priests that directs them to abstain from sexual relations. This issue has been debated since the reformation in which Martin Luther and other reformers opposed celibacy. They based their argument against celibacy on the bible scripture, namely Genesis 1:28, where God wanted people to â€Å"be fruitful and multiply†. There is nothing in the bible that directly mentions celibacy. There are many versions that mention fornication and uncleanliness and the interpretation of the Catholic Church seems to have made this deduction based on those scriptures. The other major issue that is common in most of the world’s religions is abortion; the Catholic Church, the Orthodox Church, and the Protestant Church still adopt the early church’s belief to oppose the practice of abortion. Abortion is considered murder and a mortal sin in accordance which many versus in the bible as it relates to each of these faiths. Even between the Old Testament, where the law or Tora refers to the 10 commandments, where Exodus 20:13 states â€Å"Thou shall not Murder† andShow MoreRelatedThe Reformation Of The Catholic Church1271 Words   |  6 PagesJackson Dukes Mr. Levy B3 3 March 2017 Killer Catholics Though millions of Catholics were brainwashed by higher-ranking church officials through cynical, selfish teachings, the reformation of the Catholic Church saved an immeasurable amount of lives by gaining religious freedom in Europe. I. Brainwashed Catholics A. Forced to work as slaves to church 1. Expected to work for free 2. Never taught any differently B. Forced to pay tithes 1. Rich people bribed 2. Relics as tribute C. Burned atRead MoreEssay on The Influence of Christianity on Ancient and Modern Greece1657 Words   |  7 Pagesestablishment of Christian churches in Macedonia, Achaia, Epirus, and Crete, to the expansion of the Orthodox Church, Greece has been a formidable landmark for development of Christianity throughout the world.? From its arrival to Greece with the first preaching of Paul, the Christian faith has undergone a unique assimilation into the cultural and philosophical traditions of the Greek people to create a church, visibly distinguishable from all other sects and denominations of Christianity.? Christianity hasRead MoreChronicle Of A Death Foretold By Gabriel Garcia Marquez1325 Words   |  6 Pagespronouncement as it exists in a society where indigenous cultural practices that revolve around honoring openness and sexuality have been uprooted by the contrasting Orthodox Catholic principles of purity and chastity, which swept the continent during a period of European coloni zation. Throughout the novel, Mà ¡rquez makes sure to criticise the issue of patriarchal dominance in Latin American society. Through the creation of Angela Vicario, Mà ¡rquez introduces to the reader various different societal dynamics inRead MoreBiblical Connotations By The Ille Humani Generis Decretal Of Pope Gregory Ix970 Words   |  4 Pagesintroducing diabolism to the popular narrative . In short, what did it mean to be a heretic in Medieval Christendom during the period of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries? Here, the pontificate of Pope Gregory IX and his ecclesiastical sheep of Church officials, made sure to provide a worthy Christian response in an attempt to combat the surge in popular movements of dissidence rampant in locations such as Southern France. The Decretal itself utilises metaphors and language in such a way thatRead MoreThe Depiction of Morgan Le Fay in Various Accounts of The Arthurian Legend2196 Words   |  9 Pagesfive very different portrayals of Morgan le Fay stem from five very different societies. Understanding the social climate in which these novels were written is key to understanding the manner in which Morgan is portrayed. The political and social issues of the day, such as war and religious tension, frequently effect the way authors choose to present their topics and characters, and this is especially the case with the accounts of the Arthurian legend and Morgan Le Fay. Monmouth wrote his bookRead MorePeace Is Both Complex And Multifaceted1631 Words   |  7 Pagesis actively working towards achieving world peace and harmony. Pope Francis, the current Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, has extended upon the biblical teachings and Great Commandment in an effort to proliferate world peace. He has stated that We must restore hope to young people, help the old, be open to the future, spread love†¦We need to include the excluded and preach peace. The recurring foundational principles of love and justice are again present here, signifying the timelessness of theRead More Essay on the Soul of the Artist in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man2954 Words   |  12 Pagesstating his aesthetic theories, Stephen composes a villanelle whose structure and classically Joycean crafted diction implicitly represent Stephens entire story. Once the parallel is established, it becomes clear that the poem -- and especially its recurring lines -- represent the epiphany for Stephen in terms of his self-discovery. In composing the villanelle, Stephen -- at this point a raw, untested visionary -- throws off the distractions of religion and sexuality to begin to grow specifically intoRead MoreWomen s Role For Society s Stereotype Towards Women2027 Words   |  9 PagesWomen are a seemingly recurring discussion due to their roles within society, the family, and the Church throughout the years. Sociologists believe in the principle that women â€Å"are human beings equal to men† but we see women struggle with inequality due to gender even to this day. The women presented in the Bible such as Mary and Eve are the first instances women have had any form of significance within text. This may be one of the reasons the role of the women has been established and the reasonRead MoreWorld Religion5936 Words   |  24 Pagesleadership in Tibetan Buddhism. 2. Discuss the ritual and arts of the â€Å"Diamond Vehicle, such as the use of vajra and the bell, prayer wheel, mudras and mandalas. 3. Who is the Dalai Lama and how has his influence spread outside Tibet? 4. Discuss the issues of Buddhism, the West and modern challenges. Consider Buddhism’s attraction features, influence on creative arts, historical interest and new forms of practice begun in the West. Name________________________ Class Hour_______ CHAPTER 5-JAINISMRead MoreA Comparative Analysis of the Various Contemporary Theologies Presented by Paul Enns and Millard J. Erickson3614 Words   |  15 Pagesspeaking the term theology comes to us from Greek words meaning â€Å"the study of God†. According to the online Wikipedia, Paul P. Enns is an evangelical Christian pastor, biblical scholar and writer who serves as a full-time minister at Idlewild Baptist Church in Lutz, Florida, and as adjunct professor at Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary. He is notable as one of the translators of the updated New American Standard Bible and as the author of The Moody Handbook of Theology. Enns defines theology